International Trade Theories Essay Example for Free

International Trade Theories Essay 1. Theory of Mercantilism Introduction: Mercantilism is a trade theory holing that a country’s wealth is measured by its holdings of â€Å"treasure† which usually means its gold. The mercantilists proposed theory of mercantilism. They were a group of economists who preceded Adam Smith. The foundations of economic thought between 1500 and 1800 were based on mercantilism. Mercantilists believed that the world had a finite store of wealth; therefore, when one country got more, other countries had less. Mercantilists restricted imports and encouraged or subsidized exports as a conscious policy to make their citizens better off. Mercantilists judged the success of trade by the size of the trade balance. Mercantilism was a sixteenth-century economic philosophy that maintained that a country’s wealth was measured by its holdings of gold and silver. This required that the countries to maximize exports and minimize imports. The logic was transparent to sixteenth-century policy makers that if foreigners bought more goods from us than we bought from them, then the foreigners had to pay us the difference in gold and silver, enabling us to amass more treasure. With that treasure we could expand the nation’s global influence. Mercantilists pressed for favorable balance of trade (BOT) or balance of payments (BOP) as against the unfavorable one. In a way it is good because your currency appreciates with mounting surplus on the Fore front, and the country can attract more foreign capital infusion further strengthening the country’s economy, infrastructure, etc. Now China and Japan with enormous favorable BOT and BOP get all the benefits envisaged by mercantilists. According To Adam Smith- -Mercantilism is an economic theory popular in the 1500s and was the biggest reason for Europe’s desire to colonize new lands the theory states that there is a certain amount of wealth in the world and it is in a nations best interest to accumulate it through wealth, a nation can achieve power a country achieves wealth through producing and exporting more good then they import this theory was invented to serve the interest of the empire, not the colony Evaluation of Mercantilism Theory: Mercantilist writers have been lauded and criticized in the literature on foreign trade at least since Hume’s Political Discourses in 1752. Mercantilists have been criticized for everything from their views regarding the gains from trade to their self-promotion of the merchant’s role in society as being important. Mercantilist writers assumed that the economy will generally operate at a pace that leaves resources –land and labor – idle, but in reality the economy naturally tends to full employment. This is a â€Å"flaw† in the logical foundation of mercantilist thought. The regime of WTO has moved the world away from mercantilism by pressing for free trade with reduced protectionism. Theory of Neo-Mercantilism: Mercantilism is still in vogue. Mercantilist policies are politically attractive to some firms and their workers, as mercantilism benefits certain members of society. Modern supporters of these policies are known as neo-mercantilists, or protectionists. The neo-mercantilists want higher production through full employment and that every industry produces an exportable surplus leading to favorable BOT. Consciously or otherwise, every country is concerned about increasing export earnings. The merits of surging Fore surplus built through exports speaks well of a country’s capability to cater to world’s needs qualitatively, quantitatively and in varied product/service ranges. Every country does what is possible to meet this end. But the modern trade emphasis is ‘Export more and Import more’. Finally: The main economic system used during the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries. The main goal was to increase a nations wealth by imposing government regulation concerning all of the nations commercial interests. It was believed that national strength could be maximized by limiting imports via tariffs and maximizing exports. This approach assumes the wealth of a nation depends primarily on the possession of precious metals such as gold and silver. This type of system cannot be maintained forever, because the global economy would become stagnant if every country wanted to export and no one wanted to import. After a period of time, many people began to revolt against the idea of mercantilism and stressed the need for free trade. Mercantilism is a theory developed by the merchants; hence the name. It rests on the role of a strong state in supporting (state-granted) monopolies and protecting shipping and trading lanes. Mercantilism encourages exports and discourages imports. Gold and silver are used to keep score of the game played between nation-states, and represent the wealth of the nation. _______________________________________________________________ 2. Absolute Advantage theory Introduction: Adam Smith, in The Wealth of Nations, postulated that under free trade, each nation should specialize in producing those goods that it could produce most efficiently. Some of these would be exported to pay for the imports of goods that could be produced more efficiently elsewhere. Smith ridiculed the fear of trade comparing nations to households. Since every household finds it worthwhile to produce only some of its needs and to buy others with products it can seal, the same should apply to nations: It is the maxim of every prudent master of a family, never to attempt to make at home what it will cost him more to make than to buy. The Taylor does not attempt to make his own shoes, but buys them from shoemaker What is prudence in the conduct of every private family, can scarce be folly in that of a great kingdom. If a foreign country can supply us with some part of the product of our own industry, employed in a way in which we have some advantage. The theory of absolute advantage is based on the assumption that the nation is absolutely better (i.e., more efficient) at production of certain goods than are its trading partners. Smith showed by his example of absolute advantage that both nations would gain from trade. ADAM SMITHS TRADE THEORY OF ABSOLUTE ADVANTAGE: The first classical theory of international trade was propounded by Adam Smith, the founder of classical economics. His theory is known as the Theory of Absolute Advantage. It may be possible for all the countries to produce all the commodities they need, in spite of resource constraint. But, the cost of production of goods for which a country is deficient in its resources would be exorbitantly high. It is better to import such goods rather than produce them. Most Countries therefore tend to specialize in producing commodities in which they have absolute advantage in cost of production. Therefore, most countries export goods which they can produce at a lower cost and import what they can produce at a higher cost. This common sense logic of international division of labor suggested by Adam Smith marks the beginning of modern theories of foreign trade. The theory of absolute advantage states that the basis of trade between the nations is the absolute advantage a country has in producing a commodity over the other countries. In simple words, two countries are able to trade between them because each one of them is able to produce at least one commodity at a comparatively lower cost. Assumptions: The theory of absolute advantage was advanced to buttress Smiths argument that if there was no government involvement in trade, and if each individual was left to do what in his or her own best interest, then there would be more goods and services available, prices would be reduced, and the wealth of each nation, measured as the welfare of the citizens, would increase. Smiths theory was offered to replace mercantilism. The Theory of Absolute Advantage and the Theory of Comparative Advantage rest on very strong assumptions, as follows: Two countries, two commodities assumed in both theories. The theories are obvious for this case. The three-by-three case (and those beyond) cannot be established analytically, and it is not even clear how the principle should be formalized. (See p. 3 of Ronald Jones, The Positive Theory of International Trade, Handbook of International Economics, R. Jones and P. Kenen (eds.), 1984.) Efficiency objective The Absolute and Comparative Advantage theories assume that total world production, and therefore efficiency, is the objective. Efficiency is not always a country goal. Zero Transportation Costs both theories presume that transportation costs between and within countries are zero. Factor Mobility/Immobility both theories presume that resources are absolutely mobile within a country and absolutely immobile between countries. Full employment Both theories assume full employment in each country. Comparative Advantage versus Absolute Advantage: As we can see from the example above, a country can have a comparative advantage in producing a good even if it is absolutely less efficient at producing that good. To understand this more clearly, think of an example of a doctor in private practice: A young doctor opens her own practice, working by herself, and within a few months has developed a substantial clientele. At first, she was performing all her clerical work—filing, typing and answering the phone—by herself. With an ever-busier schedule, however, she realizes that she could spend more time seeing patients, and thus see a greater number of patients, if she hired an assistant. As it turns out, the young professional is not only a brilliant doctor, but is also lightning-fast at typing and filing. She is, in fact, better at doing both jobs than the clerical assistant she hires. In other words, she has an absolute advantage at both tasks: medical diagnosis and clerical work. Does it make sense then for the doctor and her assistant to share both tasks, each spending part of the day diagnosing patients and doing clerical work? The answer is no. By having the assistant perform all the clerical work, the doctor is able to maximize her specialization and see more patients. The patients are undoubtedly better off too. In other words, even though the assistant is worse at performing both tasks, an economist would say that he nonetheless has a comparative advantage at clerical work. As you can see, by working together – trading their services – the doctor and the assistant are able to maximize their skills, making both better off. As these examples show, trade allows countries to specialize in the production of what they do best and make the most efficient use of their resources, thereby decreasing the price of both goods. No matter how inefficiently a country produces every kind of good, it can always be said to have a comparative advantage in at least one of those goods. That is the theory of comparative and absolute advantage. It helps explain what happens in the real world of international trade, and it offers broad guidance to countries as they decide which goods and services to produce and subsequently export, and which, in turn, to import. Trade in Theory and Practice: In reality, of course, trade specialization does not work precisely the way the theory of comparative advantage might suggest, for a number of reasons: No country specializes exclusively in the production and export of a single product or service. All countries produce at least some goods and services that other countries can produce more efficiently. A lower income country might, in theory, be able to produce a particular product more efficiently than the United States can but still not be able to identify American buyers or transport the item cheaply to the United States. As a result, U.S. firms continue to manufacture the product. Finally: The Scottish economist Adam Smith developed the trade theory of absolute advantage in 1776. A country that has an absolute advantage produces greater output of a good or service than other countries using the same amount of resources. Smith stated that tariffs and quotas should not restrict international trade; it should be allowed to flow according to market forces. Contrary to mercantilism Smith argued that a country should concentrate on production of goods in which it holds an absolute advantage. No country would then need to produce all the goods it consumed. The theory of absolute advantage destroys the mercantilist idea that international trade is a zero-sum game. 3. Comparative Advantage theory Introduction: David Ricardo, in 1817, enunciated his refinement of Smiths concept by postulating the principle of comparative advantage (as opposed to Smiths concept of absolute advantage). The theory of comparative advantage states that even if a country is able to produce all its good at lower costs than another country can, trade still benefits both countries, based on comparative costs. His writings demonstrated what has become known as: the principle of comparative advantage: a nation, like a person, gains from the trade by exporting the goods or services in which it has its greatest comparative advantage in productivity and importing those in which it has the least comparative advantage. The key word is comparative, meaning relative and not necessarily absolute. There are gains from trade whenever the relative price ratios of two goods differ under international exchange for what would be under conditions of no trade. In addition, the theory of comparative advantage demonstrates that countries jointly benefit from trade (under the assumption of both goods). With the theory of absolute advantage, Ricardos theory of comparative advantage does not answer why production cost differ within each country and also no consideration is given to the possibility of producing the same goods with different combinations of factors. Assumption: A situation in which a country, individual, company or region can produce a good at a lower opportunity cost than a competitor. This theory that global efficiency gains may still result from trade if a country specializes in those products it can produce more efficiently than other products-regardless of whether other countries can produce those same products even more efficiently. It denotes gains from trade will occur even in a country that has absolute advantage in all products because the country must give up less efficient output to produce more efficient output. Assumptions underlying the concept of comparative advantage Perfect occupational mobility of factors of production resources used in one industry can be switched into another without any loss of efficiency Constant returns to scale (i.e. doubling the inputs in each country leads to a doubling of total output) No externalities arising from production and/or consumption Transportation costs are ignored comparative advantage and international trade: Comparative advantage exists when a country has a margin of superiority in the production of a good or service i.e. where the opportunity cost of production is lower. The basic theory of comparative advantage was developed by David Ricardo Ricardo’s theory of comparative advantage was further developed by Heckscher, Ohlin and Samuelson who argued that countries have different factor endowments of labor, land and capital inputs. Countries will specialize in and export those products which use intensively the factors of production which they are most endowed. If each country specializes in those goods and services where they have an advantage, then total output and economic welfare can be increased (under certain assumptions). This is true even if one nation has an absolute advantage over another country. Worked example of comparative advantage consider the data in the following table: | Pre-Specialization | CD Players | Personal Computers | | UK | 2,000 | 500 | | Japan | 4,000 | 2,000 | | Total Output | 6,000 | 2,500 | After trade has taken place, total output of goods available to consumers in both countries has grown. UKs consumption of CD players has increased by 200 and they have an extra 100 PCs. For Japan, they have an extra 200 CD players and 200 PCs. If businesses exploit increasing returns to scale (i.e. economies of scale) when they specialize, the potential gains from trade are much greater. The idea that specialization should lead to increasing returns is associated with economists such as Paul Romer and Paul Ormerod Determinants regarding comparative advantage: Comparative advantage is a dynamic concept. It can and does change over time. Some businesses find they have enjoyed a comparative advantage in one product for several years only to face increasing competition as rival producers from other countries enter their markets. For a country, the following factors are important in determining the relative costs of production: The quantity and quality of factors of production available (e.g. the size and efficiency of the available labor force and the productivity of the existing stock of capital inputs). If an economy can improve the quality of its labor force and increase the stock of capital available it can expand the productive potential in industries in which it has an advantage. Investment in research development (important in industries where patents give some firms significant market advantage) for more information on this have a look at this page Movements in the exchange rate. An appreciation of the exchange rate can cause exports from a country to increase in price. This makes them less competitive in international markets. Long-term rates of inflation compared to other countries. For example if average inflation in Country X is 4% whilst in Country B it is 8% over a number of years, the goods and services produced by Country X will become relatively more expensive over time. This worsens their competitiveness and causes a switch in comparative advantage. Import controls such as tariffs and quotas that can be used to create an artificial comparative advantage for a countrys domestic producers- although most countries agree to abide by international trade agreements. Non-price competitiveness of producers (e.g. product design, reliability, quality of after-sales support) Criticisms: However, the principle of comparative advantage can be criticized in a several ways: †¢ It may overstate the benefits of specialization by ignoring a number of costs. These costs include transport costs and any external costs associated with trade, such as air and sea pollution. †¢ The theory also assumes perfect mobility of factors without any diminishing returns. The reality may be very different. Output from factor inputs is likely to be subject to diminishing returns. This will make the PPF for each country non-linear and bowed outwards. †¢ Complete specialization might create structural unemployment as some workers cannot transfer from one sector to another. †¢ Relative prices and exchange rates are not taken into account in the simple theory of comparative advantage. For example if the price of X rises relative to Y, the benefit of increasing output of X increases. †¢ Comparative advantage is not a static concept it may change over time. For example, nonrenewable resources can slowly run out, increasing the costs of production, and reducing the gains from trade. †¢ Many countries strive for food security, meaning that even if they should specialise in non-food products, they still prefer to keep a minimum level of food production. †¢ Finally, the principle of comparative advantage is derived from a simple two good/two country model. The real world is far more complex, with countries exporting and importing many different goods and services. Finally: It seems obvious that if one country is better at producing one good and another country is better at producing a different good (assuming both countries demand both goods) that they should trade. What happens if one country is better at producing both goods? Should the two countries still trade? This question brings into play the theory of comparative advantage and opportunity costs. The everyday choices that we make are, without exception, made at the expense of pursuing one or several other choices. When you decide what to wear, what to eat for dinner, or what to do on Saturday night, you are making a choice that denies you the opportunity to explore other options. ______________________________________________________________ 4. Heckscher-Ohlin theory Introduction: the Heckscher–Ohlin theorem is one of the four critical theorems of the Heckscher–Ohlin model. It states that a country will export goods that use its abundant factors intensively, and import goods that use its scarce factors intensively. In the two-factor case, it states: A capital-abundant country will export the capital-intensive good, while the labor-abundant country will export the labor-intensive good. Definition: This theory said that differences in countries’ endowment of labor compared to their endowment of land or capital explain differences in the cost of production factors. Assumption: The critical assumption of the Heckscher–Ohlin model is that the two countries are identical, except for the difference in resource endowments. This also implies that the aggregate preferences are the same. The relative abundance in capital will cause the capital-abundant country to produce the capital-intensive good cheaper than the labor-abundant country and vice versa. Initially, when the countries are not trading: the price of capital-intensive good in capital-abundant country will be bid down relative to the price of the good in the other country, the price of labor-intensive good in labor-abundant country will be bid down relative to the price of the good in the other country.Once trade is allowed, profit-seeking firms will move their products to the markets that have (temporary) higher price. As a result: the capital-abundant country will export the capital-intensive good, the labor-abundant country will export the labor-intensive good. Features of the model: †¢ Relative endowments of the factors of production (land, labor, and capital) determine a countrys comparative advantage. Countries have comparative advantages in those goods for which the required factors of production are relatively abundant locally. This is because the profitability of goods is determined by input costs. Goods that require inputs that are locally abundant will be cheaper to produce than those goods that require inputs that are locally scarce. †¢ For example, a country where capital and land are abundant but labor is scarce will have comparative advantage in goods that require lots of capital and land, but little labor — grains. If capital and land are abundant, their prices will be low. As they are the main factors used in the production of grain, the price of grain will also be low—and thus attractive for both local consumption and export. Labor intensive goods on the other hand will be very expensive to produce since labor is scarce and its price is high. Therefore, the country is better off importing those goods. Factor Proportions Theory: Trade theory, like all of economic theory, changed drastically in the first half of the twentieth century. The factor proportions theory developed by the Swedish economist Eli Heckscher and later expanded by his former graduate student Bertil Ohlin formed the major theory of international trade that is widely is still widely accepted today. Whereas Smith and Ricardo emphasized a labor theory of value the factor proportions theory was based on a more modern concept of production that raised capital to the same level of importance as labor. Factor Intensity in Production: The factor intensity in production theory considered two factor of production, labor and capital. Technology determines the way they combine to form a product. Different products required different proportions of the two factors of production. It is easy to see how the factor proportions of how a product is produced differs substantially among groups of products. For the manufacturing of leather footwear is still a relatively labor intensive process even with the most sophisticated leather treatment and patterning machinery. Other products such as computer memory chips, however although requiring some highly skilled labor require massive quantities of capital for production and development and the manufacturing facilities needed for clean production to ensure the extremely high quality demanded in the industry. The concept of factor proportions is very useful in the comparison of the production processes of goods. According to factor proportions theory, factor intensities depend on the state of technology and the current method of manufacturing a product. The theory assumed that the same technology of production would be used for the same goods in all countries. It is not therefore differences in the efficiency of production that will determine trade between countries at it did in classical theory. Classical theory implicitly assumed that technology or the productivity of labor is different across countries. Otherwise there would be no logical explanation as to why one country requires more units of labor to produce a unit of output than another country. Factor proportions theory assumed no such productivity differences. Factor Endowments, Factor Prices, And Comparative Advantage: If there is no difference in technology or productivity of factors across countries, what then determines comparative advantage in production and export? The answer is that factor prices determine cost differences. And these prices are determined by the endowments of labor and capital the country possesses. The theory assumes that labor and capital are immobile, meaning they cannot move across country borders. Therefore the countrys endowment determines the relative costs of labor and capital as compared to other countries. Each country is defined or measured by the amount of labor and capital that it possesses. If a country has when compared with other countries more labor and less capital it would be characterized as relatively labor abundant. That which is more plentiful is cheaper; so a labor abundant country would therefore have relatively cheap labor. For a country such as China possesses a relatively large endowment of labor and a relatively smaller endowment of capital. At the same time Japan is a relatively capital abundant country with a relatively smaller endowment of labor. China possesses relatively cheaper labor and should therefore specialize in the production and export of labor intensive products. Japan possesses relatively cheap capital and should specialize in the production and export of capital intensive products. Comparative advantage is derived not from the productivity of a country, but from the relative abundance of its factors of production. Using these assumptions, factor proportions theory stated that a country should specialize in the production and export of those product that use intensively its relatively abundant factor. (i) A country that is relatively labor abundant should specialize in the production of relatively labor intensive goods. It should then export these labor intensive goods in exchange for capital intensive goods. (ii) A country that is relatively capital abundant should specialized in the production of relatively capital intensive goods. It should then export these capital intensive goods in exchange for labor intensive goods. Finally: The Heckscher-Ohlin theory states that international and interregional differences in production costs occur because of differences in the supply of production factors: Commodities requiring for their production much of [abundant factors of production] and little of [scarce factors] are exported in exchange for goods that call for factors in the opposite proportions. Thus indirectly, factors in abundant supply are exported and factors in scanty supply are imported (Ohlin, 1933).These simple statements lead to an important conclusion: under free trade, countries export the products that use their scarce factors intensively and imports the products using their scarce factors intensively.

Explore Travelling Constraints People Face Tourism Essay

Explore Travelling Constraints People Face Tourism Essay Various number of research studies explore travelling constraints people face. In contrast to motivations that push people towards travelling, the overshadowing constraints of traveling could prevent the travelers from engaging in travel although the motivation may perhaps exist (Page and Hall, 2003). Financial Considerations In 2007(DSS, 2008), it was presumed that the income of an individual has a relationship with the number of foreign trips made by him/her yearly. Key findings (DSS, 2005) discovered that the household income of an individual is a critical factor that influences the choice of travelers while deciding the amount of money he/she would spend in travelling for each trip. A study in consumer behavior revealed that people of higher income are likely to explore more for products/services information (Andereck and Caldwell, 1994; Runyon and Stewart, 1987; Robertson, Zielinski and Ward, 1984; Newman, 1977). Heung and Chu (2000) found that tourists with lower income are more concerned about the pricing in comparison to tourists with higher income. In Zhang et al. (2004)s research also stated that respondents with higher income considered travel cost less significant than the lower income groups. Travel expenditure patterns play a fundamental role for travel planners and destination marketers (Jang et al., 2004). The rise in international tourism expenditure had reached 5.6% (adjusted for exchange rate fluctuations and inflation) in 2007, (WTO, 2008). WTO stated that almost 80 countries received more than USD1 million from international tourism in 2007. Hong et al. (2005) revealed that monetary factors specify a notable positive correlation between income and travel spending. Nicolau and Mas (2006), suggest that at the time of selecting a destination for travelling, the motivations of a tourist pacify the effect of prices. A particular group of people is reluctant to pay more for costly places where family or friend dwells, however they are keen to pay to explore new places. According to Nicolau and Mas (2006), travelers who are opting for culture are commonly more willing to pay higher prices, while those looking for climate are less eager. Whilst the majority of travelers spend consciously, there appears to be a tendency of people choosing a destination which offers better exchange rate so more could be spend while paying less. Dwyer, Forsyth and Rao (2002) recommended that price competitiveness is a general concept covering price discrepancies coupled with exchange rate movements and qualitative factors that have an effect on the attractiveness of a destination. The exchange rate movements have largely been altered by the structure of price within respective countries, which has resulted in either an increase or drop in price in travelling segment. In addition, their study discovered that countries like Thailand, Indonesia and Turkey took the advantage from the devaluation of their respective currencies which were compensated by the increases in the consumer prices in these countries. Whereas, Zhang et al. (2009) concluded that other factors remained constant, the chief motivation for a traveler would be the decline i n currency of the domestic market. For example, the higher the US dollar to Thai baht, the more probability of tourists to choose Thailand as their destination as tourists expenditures could be a lot lesser than USA or Europe countries. Distance and Time According to Nicolau and Mas (2006), the significant influence of distance on travelers motivations is balanced out at the time of deciding the destination to travel. The research carried out in Spain concluded that the traveler has a preference for shorter distances and is not inclined towards extended and time-consuming journeys. Nonetheless, travelers favor longer trips if they are visiting their family or friend or exploring new places. While some of the likely causes of short distance travelling could be lack of time availability or economic constraints. Zhang et al. (1999)s study revealed that people with higher income have a tendency to opt for longer journeys, however the correlation is not linear and the higher the tourists perceive their incomes the longer will be the travelling distance. Safety, Security and Visa Issues Mansfeld and Pizam (2006) suggest that travelers may possibly have safety and security concerns because of issues such as war, civil unrest, terrorism, disease, crime (specifically theft), catastrophes caused by human or technical error, natural disasters, and dangerous wildlife. Beirman (2003) stated that the key determinant in travelers choices to go visit a destination is the perception of safety and security. Researchers say that episodes like the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, SARS in March 2003, Tsunami in December 2004 and Swine Flu influenza in April 2009 had tremendously damaged and threatened the travel and tourism industry. Regarding this, Dickman (2003) pointed out that the lack of confidence in an individual could be one of the possible reasons that they are expected to respond strongly on negative conditions like epidemics, disasters and terrorism. Pakistan faced the most prominent plummet in visa issuance for USA after the terrorist attack on the World Trade Centre. In 2002, the number of tourist and immigrant visas issued to Pakistani citizens fell approximately 70 percent and 40 percent respectively, in comparison to 2001. International tourism to America chopped down for nearly three years following 2001 incident. The total number of Americans who traveled internationally also decreased past 9/11, the Office of Travel and Tourism Industries reports (Jason and Dalia, 2011). Even though travel surveys time after time discover that safety and security are vital concerns among travelers (Poon and Adams, 2000), the latest research conducted by Valencia and Crouch (2008) testing travelers response to risk uncovered that 33% of the surveyed respondents would go ahead as planned regardless; 21% would decide to relocate to another safer destination and 19% would delay their trip. On the contrary with a natural disaster, 36% preferred to reschedule their trip and 19% chose to go to a safer destination and 15% would go ahead with their trips as planned. Likewise, the results in Rittichainuwat and Chakraborty (2009) carried out in Thailand, also discovered that a mean of 2.89 respondents were not put off entirely (by travel risks or epidemics but would decide to visit another safer destination (mean=3.56). Moreover, PATA and Visa (2008) study proved that out of 52% of travelers whose travel plan has been affected by the economic crisis, 75% would switch to less co stly destinations and 31% would delay their trips. In the survey by Zhang et al.(2004), Hong Kong natives identified epidemics as a main aspect while travelling, followed by safety, disaster, good value for money, political and social environments. Pakistanis face the visa restrictions when travel to USA. There is also a lot of abhorrence for USA in Pakistani society because of the losses of their lives during war on terror (Shahnaz, 2012) Edgell (1994) specifies that outbound tourists are commonly affected by different governmental policies and restrictions of various countries. Particularly rules regarding the imposition of restrictions such as limited visa grants, exit visa requirements, limited access to foreign currency and restricted allowances for foreign travel services are widespread. Socio-demographic constraints Researchers suggest that socio cultural, demographic and economic features like nature of society i.e. patriarchal or matriarchal, age, family life cycle stage, influence of family, education, profession, economic position and self-concept also influence decision making in travelling. Constraints in travelling choices are principally linked to gender, life cycle and cultural factors (Jackson, 1991; Shaw, 1994). Factors like family, work, domestic responsibilities, determine the quantity and quality of time accessible for traveling and act as constrictions for some individuals. Although constraining features affect both genders, the extent to which either gender is affected is poles apart. The limitations operate on females more than on males (Sonia, 2011). Apostolopoulos and Sonmez (2001) propose that despite the fact that womens travel patterns and trends reflect their individual societal customs and principles, cultural or religious limitations in regards to their societal positions and socio economic restrictions are expected to decide their travel capabilities and methods (Bartos, 1982; Myers and Moncreif, 1978; Schul and Crompton, 1983; Van Raaij Francken, 1984). In accordance with tourism decision making research DeCrop (2005) has explained the family as a Decision Making Unit (DMU) in which fundamental decisions of life are discussed. When it comes to travelling decisions, in addition to family, close social circles e.g. friends etc. possibly signify significant DMUs as well. The value of family and the influence of each family member are crucial in deciding the liberty that one associate exercises in making independent decisions. The findings, however, point out that females are by and large more controlled by family responsibilities and approvals than males. It is evident that lesser the limitations operating on an individual the more will be the participation in traveling (Sonia, 2011).

Story Truth Vs. Happening Truth Using Tim Obriens work Essays -- Tim

The Effect of "Story Truth" vs. "Happening Truth" Literature is such a beautiful thing because it does not give us an answer to it's questions. There are so many iffy spots that leave us to develop our own thoughts and feelings toward the piece of work. This is an interesting factor because at many times it affects us in a different way and can develop us as an individual. When reading a piece of literature, one person can interpret it in different ways than another person reading the same piece of work. I remember analyzing poems with my English class in the previous years and when we were asked to interpret it, we all had different answers. Sometimes what I got out of the poem didnÂ’t even go close to the direction that my classmate was going in. However, when I saw it from her view I saw more of where they were coming from I learned more about them. I read, "The Things They Carried," in last year's English class. I think that this is the only book that my class as a whole read, which means a lot coming from a class where spark notes was their way out. The way Tim O'Brien wrot...

The Realm of Sisterhood in Mary Leapor’s Poetry Essay -- Biography Bio

The Realm of Sisterhood in Mary Leapor’s Poetry For a woman writer to be read by her peers in eighteenth century England was somewhat unusual. For this woman to procure some kind of living from her writing was even more remarkable. But for such a woman to claim both these accomplishments, with writings attacking the very state of women no less, was extraordinary. Yet Mary Leapor was this woman. Not only did she herself defy society in remaining unmarried for the whole of her short life, but she also took up the call to fight for women everywhere. Her answer to the oppression of society was to find solace in the bonds of sisterhood. The radicalism of Leapor’s encouragement has long been a source of discrepancy for her critics, and there exists a wide array of interpretations. The question lies within the definition of the female relationships she so wholeheartedly promotes. The varying interpretations include everything ranging from Leapor as promoting lesbianism, to simply promoting good female friendships. Adrienne Rich termed this range of womanly bonds the â€Å"lesbian continuum,† and explains it as the inclusive realm between â€Å"consciously desired genital sexual experience with another woman,† and â€Å"the sharing of a rich inner life, the bonding against male tyranny, the giving and receiving of practical and political support† (51). The question remains: where does Leapor belong on this continuum? Critic Donna Landry places Leapor in the realm of replacing heterosexual union with something closer to homosexual tendencies, while Richard Greene offers a far more platonic view of things. In applying Rich’s tenets of a range, it is possible to read Leapor as somewhere between Landry and Green, and as enco... ...ress, 1995. Greene, Robert. Mary Leapor: A Study in Eighteenth-Century Women’s Poetry. New York: Oxford University Press Inc., 1993. Harris, Jocelyn. â€Å"Sappho, Souls, and the Salic Law of Wit.† Anticipations of the Enlightenment in England, France, and Germany. Ed by Alan Charles Kors and Paul J. Korshin. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1987. Landry, Donna. â€Å"Mary leapor Laughs at the Fathers.† The Muses of Resistance: Laboring Class Women’s Poetry in Britain, 1739-1796. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. 78-119. Rich, Adrienne. â€Å"Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence.† Blood, Bread, and Poetry: Selected Prose 1979-1985.† New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1986. Wahl, Elizabeth Susan. Invisible relations: Representations of Female Intimacy in the Age of Englightenment. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999.

Essay --

Operation Deliberate Force By SSG Barker, Russell J. ALC Class 018-14 SFC Franklin Barker, Russell J. 13F ALC Class 018-14 14 March 2014 Operation Deliberate Force The idea of a humanitarian war or going to war in pursuit of a humanitarian effort is an ambiguous idea. From an outsider’s point of view it can seem like a self-serving mission or even some crazy form of moral or immoral self-deception. Yet, in war strategies, humanitarian efforts are widely distributed through all aspects of our art of war such as the Geneva conventions. In operation deliberate force the theory of air strikes came to be the most humane effort in that of shortening the war as well as bringing the amount of innocent suffering to a minimum. Bosnia and Herzegovina is located in the south east region of Europe, in the Balkan Peninsula. It borders with the Republic of Croatia in the north, west and southwest and with Serbia and Montenegro in the east and south. The Ivan Sedlo saddle (much like a valley) found between the mountains Bitovnje and BjelaÃ… ¡nica connects the two major wholes of the country, the more populated and abundant in forests and land, Bosnia in the north and the smaller, rocky Herzegovina in the south. There is a natural border of mountains between Bosnia and Herzegovina. Herzegovina is actually quite small barely making up ten percent of the population of the entire country. Most of Bosnia is hilly and mountainous and there is almost no area less than one hundred and fifty meters above sea level. Bosnia is not a country abundant in many different water sources; it contains a few large rivers and only few lakes. Of the countries making up the former Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzego... ...ion. There were many sides to this Bosnian civil war; each of the three cultures in this territorial conflict had their own justifiable reasoning behind the events that took place throughout the long ordeal. Yet it was easily brought to an end once NATO and the United Nations decided to take a more aggressive role with their presence. The Serbians who were the main antagonist throughout this war thought they were much more militarily inclined than they actually were therefore when just a small amount of air strikes were implemented by NATO it occurred to them that they should probably quit while they still could. Operation Deliberate Force in my opinion, proves how effective air support can be, and how efficient it is at bringing all things conflict related to an end much quicker than ground battle, and with much less casualties, both civilian and military, at that.

Invictus Explication Essay

Written in the form of a sonnet, William Ernest Henleys poem â€Å"Invictus† describes the continuos battle against darkness and sin that every human being experiences in his or her life. â€Å"Invictus† is formatted in four stanzas with four lines each and every stanza serves a separate purpose then the stanzas before. Henley reveals one of the major themes of this poem through the words â€Å"My head is bloody, but unbowed† (8). This line at the end of stanza two displays that everybody will endure struggles at some point in their life, but they cannot let those struggles complete destroy hemselves. Each stanza not only introduces realistic struggles and hardships that human beings face, but they also illustrate how humans can triumph over those hardships. For example, the very beginning of the poem starts off with â€Å"Out of the night that covers me/ Black as the pit from pole to pole† implying that darkness and wickedness surround someone’s life (1-2). Later on in the beginning of stanzas two and three words such as â€Å"fell clutch/†¦ horror of the shade’†¦ [and] menace of the years† also introduce a dark and gloomy tone to the poem (4,9-10). Once the gloomy tone has een presented, Henley quickly switches gears and flips the tone to one of strength and encouragement; The transition of tones is exhibited in strong language such as â€Å"l have not winced, nor cried aloud† (6). Henley formats each stanza in a way where the reader leaves with positive thoughts as he or she continues reading. All throughout the poem, every line contains either a positive or negative tone; however, the order in which the lines are written change with each stanza. Rather than simply alternating between positive and negative tones with each line, Henley hanges not only the orders but also the amount of the positive and negative lines within each stanza. For example, the first stanza contains two negatively toned lines that are followed by two positive lines, but the second stanza alternates from negative to positive. By altering the order of the lines, Henley hints at the fact that life can throw good or bad things at you in any order. Different from all other stanza’s, the third stanza contains three negatively toned lines and only one positively toned line. The stanza begins â€Å"Beyond this place of wrath and tears/ Looms but the Horror of the shade/ and yet the menace of the years† creating an extremely dark and malicious feel to the stanza (9-11). However, the maliciousness is shown to be ineffective to this person as the â€Å"menace of the years/ finds and shall find [him/her] unafraid† (11-12). Since stanza three contains three negatively toned lines in a row, it indicates that life can become absolutely overwhelming with darkness and evil, but no matter how hopeless life may seem people always have the choice to fight and â€Å"be unafraid†. The themes of self-reliance and survival present themselves strongly in the last stanza. Essentially, Henleys â€Å"Invictus† can be summed up with one simple statement: humans control their own lives, they have been given the authority to do whatever they desire. The use of the words â€Å"Master† and â€Å"Captain† in lines 15-16 prove this statement because both masters and captains are leaders who are inclined to make their own decisions. These lasts lines ultimately prove that people are in control of in their own hands. Whether a person ends up down the road of triumph or defeat falls complete upon his or herself because â€Å"[they] are the Masters of [their] fate/ [they] are the Captains of [their] soul† (15-16).

In conflict, it is women who suffer most

Plan: Interpretation of prompt: Generally throughout the majority of conflicts especially physical conflict, it is the men who are at the forefront fighting the battle. However it is the mother, the wives, the daughters and the sisters of these men who are the ones who suffer most. Paragraphs/Ideas * Picassos painting â€Å"the weeping woman† depicts a grief stricken lady, experiencing the true devastation of losing a beloved male to the horror of the Spanish civil War. In the quiet American, it is Phuong who suffers throughout the text, being torn between both men when having to decide who she wants to be with as a result of the conflict between the two men. * Essay: History has proven to the world that no matter gender, race or religion, conflict will always arise. Not always but generally it is the men of the world who stand up for what they believe in, resulting in the battle of conflict between men. Frequently ending physically, men attempt to prove dominance in their com petitive race through conflict, while women are forced to take a back seat. Despite the result of a male dominated conflict, the deeper consequences show a suffering and pain that is caused to the women who are affected most from the outcome. Famous painter Pablo Picasso’s early 1900’s painting of the â€Å"Weeping Woman† presents the severe suffering that is caused to women through conflict. Representing a woman devastated by the effects of the Spanish Civil War, Picasso displays a face that is etched with a universal pain felt by all women who have been affected through the loss of men to war. The tears treaming down her excoriated face shows the suffering caused by a woman who has clearly felt the true effect of a conflict. Although millions of men have lost their lived and been damaged physically through war, it is clearly devastated through the Picasso’s painting that the emotional suffering that impacts on women is much more severe. Women have very little impact when it comes to conflict, especially when it is male dominated . Being forced to be a bystander like the weeping women, causes adverse emotion affects on women, such that is more traumatising to them than the conflict to the man. They may not always display it, but women always feel the pain of conflict more harshly than men. The harsh suffering that women experience through conflict is similarly exemplified in Grahem Greene’s text The Quiet American. Greene’s female main character Phoung and her sister represent two Vietnamese women who are affected differently by the horrors of the Vietnam War. The conflict of the war mixed in with the rivalry of her two lover’s for her affection tears Phuong apart and inflicts emotional pain on her. Her love for main character Fowler combats against her will to be married to protagonist Pyle, causing her to feel a world of hurt as a result. With Phuong unable to truly decide between her original lover and the man who can provide her with what she needs, we see the sorrow that slowly confuses and destroys her throughout the text. The pain of seeing her younger sister unhappy and unmarried also tears at Phuongs sister, with her main priority of doing what is right for Phuong impacting her every decision. Phuong’s sister can clearly see the happiness experienced when her sister is with fowler however she knows that they are unable to marry. The need for Phuong to marry a man who can provide for her inflicts suffering upon Phuong’s sister as she forces herself to convince Phuong to make the appropriate choice. This conflict of man vs man influenced by the war presents just how women are always at the deepest end of suffering emotionally compared to men. It is the women such as Phuong and her sister who experience the unfathomable pain and suffering that is forced upon them by the conflict which only affects men to a certain level. Paragraph 3: Regardless of whether it is emotional or physical, the battle of supremacy within a conflict shall always end with suffering. What is not always seen on the surface of a conflict is the deeper pain that is thrust upon those who are not directly involved. Generally, it is the women who suffer the most throughout conflict, the women who are bystanders and experience the conflict on another level. Men are usually at the front line of a conflict, doing what is right by their beliefs however it is there beloved female family members who bear the grunt of the painful result of a conflict.